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Windows server 2012 standard max ram free.Stretch Cluster Replication Using Shared Storage | Microsoft Docs
Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. In this evaluation example, you will configure these computers and their storage in a single stretch cluster, where two nodes share one set of storage and two nodes share another set of storage, then replication keeps both sets of storage mirrored in the cluster to allow immediate failover.
These nodes and their storage should be located in separate physical sites, although it is not required. There are separate steps for creating Hyper-V and File Server clusters as sample scenarios. In this evaluation, servers in different sites must be able to communicate with the other servers via a network, but not have any physical connectivity to the other site's shared storage. This scenario does not make use of Storage Spaces Direct.
A pair of logical "sites" that represent two different data centers, with one called Redmond and the other called Bellevue. You can use only as few as two nodes, where one node each is in each site. However, you will not be able to perform intra-site failover with only two servers. You can use as many as 64 nodes. While it is possible to attach a storage device to a single server and use this for replication, Windows Failover Clustering still relies on SCSI Persistent Reservations.
Local disks or disks presented by a hypervisor might not be compatible. Many of these requirements can be determined by using the Test-SRTopology cmdlet. You get access to this tool if you install Storage Replica or the Storage Replica Management Tools features on at least one server. There is no need to configure Storage Replica to use this tool, only to install the cmdlet. More information is included in the following steps. From this point on, always logon as a domain user who is a member of the built-in administrator group on all servers.
Always remember to elevate your PowerShell and CMD prompts going forward when running on a graphical server installation or on a Windows 10 computer. As of this point, the guide presumes you have two pairings of servers for use in a stretch cluster. Restart nodes as needed. Consult your hardware vendor documentation for configuring shared storage and networking hardware.
Ensure power management in Windows Server is set to high performance. Restart as required. Run ServerManager. Install the Failover Clustering , and Storage Replica roles and features on each of the nodes and restart them. If planning to use other roles like Hyper-V, File Server, etc. On SR-SRV04 or a remote management computer, run the following command in a Windows PowerShell console to install the required features and roles for a stretch cluster on the four nodes and restart them:.
Ensure that each set of paired server nodes can see that site's storage enclosures only i. You should use more than one single network adapter if using iSCSI. Provision the storage using your vendor documentation. After you setup your server nodes, the next step is to create one of the following types of clusters:. Skip this section and go to the Configure a file server for general use cluster section, if you want to create a file server cluster and not a Hyper-V cluster.
You will now create a normal failover cluster. After configuration, validation, and testing, you will stretch it using Storage Replica.
You can perform all of the steps below on the cluster nodes directly or from a remote management computer that contains the Windows Server Remote Server Administration Tools.
Create the Hyper-V compute cluster. Ensure that the cluster name is 15 characters or fewer. Windows Server now includes an option for Cloud Azure -based Witness. You can choose this quorum option instead of the file share witness.
Review Network Recommendations for a Hyper-V Cluster in Windows Server and ensure that you have optimally configured cluster networking. Add one disk in the Redmond site to the cluster CSV. Gospel choir for concerts, weddings, and other events June 09, You are organizing an event and you want to listen to the real gospel?
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This semi-precious wooden coffee table "Courbaril" was brought back from French Guiana in Peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joystick , etc. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first known use of computer was in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by the English writer Richard Brathwait : "I haue [ sic ] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.
The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts.
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the s, meaning 'one who calculates'; this is an "agent noun from compute v.
The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean " 'calculating machine' of any type is from Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, etc.
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer , according to Derek J.
It was discovered in in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera , between Kythera and Crete , and has been dated to approximately c. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra , the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer [9] [10] and gear -wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan , Persia in The sector , a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around — by the English clergyman William Oughtred , shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm.
It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions.
Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.
In the s, Pierre Jaquet-Droz , a Swiss watchmaker , built a mechanical doll automaton that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced.
In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. In —, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar machine , which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 that is, 1 BC to AD , keeping track of leap years and varying day length.
The tide-predicting machine invented by the Scottish scientist Sir William Thomson in was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration , used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration.
In , Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work.
Starting in the s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. Charles Babbage , an English mechanical engineer and polymath , originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the " father of the computer ", [17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.
After working on his revolutionary difference engine , designed to aid in navigational calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine , was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards , a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom.
For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later.
The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit , control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops , and integrated memory , making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.
Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage , completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit the mill in He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers , which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.
However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in by James Thomson , the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson.
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer , built by H. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H.
A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and aircraft control systems.
By , the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer , which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target.
During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well. Early digital computers were electromechanical ; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.
These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2 , created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in , was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
In , Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world's first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design , using a binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.
Zuse's next computer, the Z4 , became the world's first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.
The engineer Tommy Flowers , working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. The German encryption machine, Enigma , was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women.
Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.
Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubes , but Mark II with 2, valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes. Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J.
The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable.
The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the stored program , where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete , which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine. Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine.
A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions a program that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his paper. In , Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer.
His report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. The Manchester Baby was the world's first stored-program computer. Grace Hopper was the first person to develop a compiler for programming language. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1 , the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between and , one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam.
The LEO I computer became operational in April [49] and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job. The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in John Bardeen and Walter Brattain , while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs , built the first working transistor , the point-contact transistor , in , which was followed by Shockley's bipolar junction transistor in Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.
Junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. At the University of Manchester , a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.
However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory , so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit IC. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence , Geoffrey W.
Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D. Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon , whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Noyce's monolithic IC was fabricated using the planar process , developed by his colleague Jean Hoerni in early In turn, the planar process was based on Mohamed M.
Atalla's work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late s. The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor , [84] [85] and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel , [86] designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, [84] along with Ted Hoff , Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel.
System on a Chip SoCs are complete computers on a microchip or chip the size of a coin. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly above known as Package on package or below on the opposite side of the circuit board the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals don't have to travel long distances.
Since ENIAC in , computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs Such as the Snapdragon being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power. The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50 lb 23 kg IBM was an early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in.
The first laptops , such as the Grid Compass , removed this requirement by incorporating batteries — and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the s. These smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market.
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. Circuits , computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory RAM , motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware. These parts are interconnected by buses , often made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" in positive logic representation. The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU.
Some examples of input devices are:. The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:. The control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter , a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. The control system's function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:.
Since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place locations further down the program.
Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow. The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program , and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer , which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor.
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. Some can operate only on whole numbers integers while others use floating point to represent real numbers , albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform.
Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return Boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other "is 64 greater than 65? These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing Boolean logic. Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. To aid development for programmers,. To improve security Microsoft added Storage Card Encryption so that encryption keys are lost if device is cold-booted. Further updates both, security and feature, can now also be provided using Operating System Live Update. Windows Mobile 6. It is a minor upgrade to the Windows Mobile 6 platform with various performance enhancements and a redesigned Home screen featuring horizontal tiles that expand on clicking to display more information, although this new home screen is featured only on Windows Mobile Standard edition.
This was not supported in the Professional edition. Domain Enroll is functionality to connect the device to System Center Mobile Device Manager , a product to manage mobile devices. Aside from the visual and feature distinctions, the underlying CE versions can be used to differentiate WM 6. In WM 6. It was never part of Microsoft's mobile phone roadmap, and has been described by its chief executive, Steve Ballmer , as "not the full release Microsoft wanted" until the multi-touch -enabled Windows Mobile 7 now replaced by Windows Phone arrived in Along with Windows Mobile 6.
In the months following this release, development shifted from Windows Mobile to its successor Windows Phone. As such no major upgrades were planned or released, although three minor updates; 6. The second minor update was announced on February 2, , along with the Sony Ericsson Aspen which was the first phone to use this version. Touchable tiles replaced soft keys. Additional features include threaded email and Office Mobile The last minor update and the last released version is 6.
It first leaked in January , and was unofficially ported to some Windows Mobile phones. Although Microsoft released a similarly-named Windows 10 Mobile in , this operating system is unrelated to the former Windows Mobile operating systems. There are three main versions of Windows Mobile for various hardware devices: [65]. Windows Mobile for Automotive and Windows Mobile software for Portable Media Centers are among some specialty versions of the platform. Microsoft had over 50 handset partners, [66] when Windows Mobile was still being shipped on new devices.
The operating system has compatibility with Windows Mobile 6. Pocket PCs and personal digital assistants were originally the intended platform for Windows Mobile. These were grouped into two main categories: devices that lacked mobile phone capabilities, and those that included it. Beginning with version 6 devices with this functionality ran "Windows Mobile 6 Professional" and those that lacked it ran "Windows Mobile 6 Classic".
Microsoft had described these devices as "a handheld device that enables you to store and retrieve e-mail, contacts, appointments, play multimedia files, games, exchange text messages with MSN Messenger, browse the Web, and more". Although in the broad sense of the term "Smartphone", both Pocket PC phones and Microsoft branded Smartphones each fit into this category.
Microsoft's use of the term "Smartphone" includes only more specific hardware devices that differ from Pocket PC phones. Such Smartphones were originally designed without touchscreens , intended to be operated more efficiently with only one hand, and typically had lower display resolution than Pocket PCs.
Microsoft's focus for the Smartphone platform was to create a device that functioned well as a phone and data device in a more integrated manner. Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market grew from its inception while new devices were being released. After peaking in , [72] it saw decline year-on-year. In Q4 Microsoft shipped 2. Software could be developed by third parties for the Windows Mobile operating system.
Developers had several options for deploying mobile applications. NET Compact Framework was a subset of the. NET Framework and hence shared many components with software development on desktop clients, application servers, and web servers which had the. NET Framework installed, thus integrating networked computing space.
To aid developers Microsoft released software development kits SDKs that worked in conjunction with their Visual Studio development environment. These SDKs included emulator images for developers to test and debug their applications while writing them.
Software could be tested on a client machine directly or be downloaded to a device. Some third party development environments allowed coding to be done on the device itself without the need for a computer. Developer communities have used the SDK to port later versions of Windows Mobile OS to older devices and making the OS images available for free, thus providing the devices with newer feature sets.
Microsoft had tolerated this procedure for some time but decided in February to ask developers to take their OS images off the net, which in turn raised discussions. On July 5, , Microsoft opened a third-party application distribution service called Windows Marketplace for Mobile. In the early years of Windows Mobile devices were able to be managed and synced from a remote computer using ActiveSync ; a data synchronization technology and protocol developed by Microsoft , originally released in This allowed servers running Microsoft Exchange Server , or other third party variants, to act as a personal information manager and share information such as email, calendar appointments, contacts or internet favorites.
Device Center is included with Vista and Windows 7 and provides many front end enhancements, allowing a home user to sync PIM information with Microsoft Outlook and later, photos from Windows Photo Gallery, videos or music from Windows Media Player and favorites with Internet Explorer; without the need for a server back end.
Devices at this time also included a base driver compatible with Mobile Device Center so a user can connect to a computer without a need for any configuration. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Discontinued family of mobile operating systems by Microsoft. This article is about the mobile phone platform from to Main article: Windows CE. Main article: Pocket PC Main article: Windows Mobile Main article: Windows Mobile 5.
Main article: Windows Mobile 6. See also: List of Windows Mobile devices. Main article: Pocket PC. Main article: Windows Mobile Smartphone. See also: Windows Marketplace for Mobile. Retrieved July 14, June 13, Archived from the original on December 27, Retrieved September 9, And where's the sales figure? The Guardian. Retrieved September 6, More Than a PDA! Archived August 21, , at the Wayback Machine. Pocket PC Magazine.
Windows server 2012 standard max ram free.How to Speed Up a Slow Windows 2012, 2016, or 2019 Server
To get rid of this issue, you can use the following script to launch VirtualBox. This article or section needs language, wiki syntax or style improvements. See Help:Style for reference. If you have a dual boot system between Arch Linux and another operating system, it can become tedious to switch back and forth if you need to work in both.
You may also experience performance or compatibility issues when using a virtual machine, which can impact your ability to do certain tasks. This guide will let you reuse, in a virtual machine, your native Arch Linux installation when you are running your second operating system. This way, you keep the ability to run each operating system natively, but have the option to run your Arch Linux installation inside a virtual machine. Depending on your hard drive setup, device files representing your hard drives may appear differently when you will run your Arch Linux installation natively or in virtual machine.
Windows are abstracting the fake RAID device. To circumvent this problem, we will need to use an addressing scheme that is persistent to both systems. This can be achieved using UUIDs.
Make sure your boot loader and fstab file is using UUIDs, otherwise fix this issue. Read fstab and Persistent block device naming. Make sure your mkinitcpio configuration uses the HOOK block :. If it is not present, add it and regenerate the initramfs.
Boot the host which will use the Arch Linux virtual machine. The command will need to be adapted according to the host you have. There are 3 ways to achieve this: login as root, changing the access right of the device with chmod , adding your user to the disk group. The latter way is the more elegant, let us proceed that way:. Adapt the above command to your need, especially the path and filename of the VMDK location and the raw disk location to map which contain your Arch Linux installation.
On Windows, as the disk filename convention is different from UNIX, use this command to determine what drives you have in your Windows system and their location:. There are other limitations regarding the aforementioned command when used in other operating systems like OS X, please thus read carefully the manual page , if you are concerned. Then, the newly raw disk needs to be attached to the machine. Indeed, you must specify its hardware configuration as close as possible as your native machine: turning on the 3D acceleration, increasing video memory, setting the network interface, etc.
Finally, you may want to seamlessly integrate your Arch Linux with your host operating system and allow copy pasting between both OSes. In some cases it may be useful to install a native Arch Linux system while running another operating system: one way to accomplish this is to perform the installation through VirtualBox on a raw disk.
If the existing operating system is Linux based, you may want to consider following Install from existing Linux instead. This scenario is very similar to Run a native Arch Linux installation inside VirtualBox , but will follow those steps in a different order: start by Create a raw disk.
Before starting the VM, run the following commands on the host machine [3] :. If you are attempting to install Mojave, after doing the aforementioned steps, the installer will load up but you might not be able to send keyboard or mouse input. The reason seems to be that Mojave no longer supports the USB 1. To do that first install the VirtualBox Extension pack. Input should work from this point onwards. If the installer is unable to properly format the bootable drive during installation and you end up in an UEFI shell, enter the following:.
You will now be brought to couple of obscure PCI paths. The first one is the one that you just attempted to boot from and it did not work. The second or third one should be the one with the MacOS recovery partition that you need to load to continue the installation. Click the second Entry. If it is empty, press Esc to go back and select the third entry.
Once you get one with folders click though the folders. Once you click enter on the boot. Note that some of the subdirectories might be missing. Remember that you need to get to a boot. Your Windows installation must reside on the first MBR partition for this operation to success.
Operation for other partitions are available but have been untested see Known limitations for details. The first three following points comes from this outdated VirtualBox wiki page , but are updated here. Include a reserved system partition if present and the actual Windows partition usually disk C:. The size of Disk2vhd-created image will be the sum of the actual files on the partition used space , not the size of a whole partition. If all goes well, the image should just boot in a VM and you will not have to go through the hassle with MBR and Windows bootloader, as in the case of cloning an entire partition.
If your Windows virtual machine refuses to boot, you may need to apply the following modifications to your virtual machine. In some cases, it is useful to be able to dual boot with Windows and access the partition in a virtual machine. This process is significantly different from Move a native Windows installation to a virtual machine in several ways:. A VirtualBox virtual machine must be manually created.
As of now do not add any storage device any disk to the virtual machine, it will be done manually later.
Configure the virtual machine with the following settings settings panel can be opened by clicking the "Settings" button in the main toolbar :. To access the Windows partitions, create a raw VMDK file pointing to the relevant Windows partitions root privileges are required to read disk partition table :. The command will also create an extra file inside the virtual machine folder, "windows-pt.
VirtualBox must have raw disk access in order to run a Windows partition. Normally, this would require VirtualBox to be run with full root privileges, but more elegant options are available.
Here udev is configured to restrict the access to partitions Windows partitions to the vboxusers group, and then the user running VirtualBox is added to the group. Assigning the disks to the vboxusers group can be done automatically by creating the following file:. Crucially, unlike the interface on predecessing Palm-size PC, the Pocket PC had a less cluttered interface more suitable for a mobile device.
This initial release had multiple built-in applications, [12] many of them similarly branded to match their desktop counterparts; such as Microsoft Reader , Microsoft Money , Pocket Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player.
Notes, a note-taking app saw its first release and would be supported by most later versions of Windows Mobile. Intelligent character recognition support allowed Notes to distinguish styles of handwriting to be learned by the OS during processing to improve accuracy and recognition levels.
With future releases, the Pocket PC and Smartphone lines would increasingly collide as the licensing terms were relaxed allowing OEMs to take advantage of more innovative, individual design ideas. Newly added or updated programs include [14] [15] [16] [17] Windows Media Player 8 with streaming capability; MSN Messenger , and Microsoft Reader 2, with Digital rights management support.
Upgrades to the bundled version of Office Mobile include a spell checker and word count tool in Pocket Word and improved Pocket Outlook. Connectivity was improved with file beaming on non-Microsoft devices such as Palm OS , the inclusion of Terminal Services and Virtual private networking support, and the ability to synchronize folders. The last was designed especially for Pocket PCs which include phone functionalities.
Windows Mobile was powered by Windows CE 4. Communications interface were enhanced with Bluetooth device management, which allowed for Bluetooth file beaming support, Bluetooth headset support and support for Bluetooth add-on keyboards.
A pictures application with viewing, cropping, e-mail, and beaming support was added. A puzzle game titled Jawbreaker is among the preinstalled programs. GAPI was included with this release to facilitate the development of games for the platform. This was the last version which allowed users to back up and restore an entire device through ActiveSync.
This upgrade allows users to switch between portrait and landscape modes and introduces a single-column layout in Pocket Internet Explorer. Windows Mobile 5. Microsoft offered mainstream support for Windows Mobile 5 through October 12, , and extended support through October 13, It used the.
NET Compact Framework 1. Other features included an enhanced battery-saving capability called persistent storage capability. This continued the trend of Windows-based devices moving from using RAM as their primary storage medium to the use of a combination of RAM and flash memory in use, no distinction between the two is obvious to users.
Programs and frequently accessed data run in RAM, while most storage is in the flash memory. The OS seamlessly moves data between the two as needed. Everything is backed up in the flash memory, so unlike prior devices, WM5 devices lose no data if power is lost.
New to 5. Media management and playback was enhanced with Picture and Video package, which converged the management of videos and pictures and Windows Media Player 10 Mobile. Improvements were made to ActiveSync 4. Business customers benefited from a new error reporting facility similar to that present in desktop and server Windows systems. Caller ID now supports photos so a user can apply an image to each contact to show when a call is received.
DirectShow was also natively added. This release was the first to include DirectDraw with hardware acceleration, replacing the deprecated graphics component of GAPI. Windows Mobile 6 is powered by Windows CE 5.
Functionally, it works much like Windows Mobile 5, but with much better stability. Along with the announcement of Office Mobile 6. In addition to the newly included programs with Office Mobile improvements were made to existing applications. A large number of Windows Mobile users are enterprise users business environments were targeted.
To aid development for programmers,. To improve security Microsoft added Storage Card Encryption so that encryption keys are lost if device is cold-booted. Further updates both, security and feature, can now also be provided using Operating System Live Update.
Windows Mobile 6. It is a minor upgrade to the Windows Mobile 6 platform with various performance enhancements and a redesigned Home screen featuring horizontal tiles that expand on clicking to display more information, although this new home screen is featured only on Windows Mobile Standard edition. This was not supported in the Professional edition. Domain Enroll is functionality to connect the device to System Center Mobile Device Manager , a product to manage mobile devices.
Aside from the visual and feature distinctions, the underlying CE versions can be used to differentiate WM 6. In WM 6. It was never part of Microsoft's mobile phone roadmap, and has been described by its chief executive, Steve Ballmer , as "not the full release Microsoft wanted" until the multi-touch -enabled Windows Mobile 7 now replaced by Windows Phone arrived in Along with Windows Mobile 6.
In the months following this release, development shifted from Windows Mobile to its successor Windows Phone. As such no major upgrades were planned or released, although three minor updates; 6. The second minor update was announced on February 2, , along with the Sony Ericsson Aspen which was the first phone to use this version.
Touchable tiles replaced soft keys. Additional features include threaded email and Office Mobile The last minor update and the last released version is 6. It first leaked in January , and was unofficially ported to some Windows Mobile phones.
Although Microsoft released a similarly-named Windows 10 Mobile in , this operating system is unrelated to the former Windows Mobile operating systems. There are three main versions of Windows Mobile for various hardware devices: [65]. Windows Mobile for Automotive and Windows Mobile software for Portable Media Centers are among some specialty versions of the platform. Microsoft had over 50 handset partners, [66] when Windows Mobile was still being shipped on new devices.
The operating system has compatibility with Windows Mobile 6. Pocket PCs and personal digital assistants were originally the intended platform for Windows Mobile. These were grouped into two main categories: devices that lacked mobile phone capabilities, and those that included it.
Beginning with version 6 devices with this functionality ran "Windows Mobile 6 Professional" and those that lacked it ran "Windows Mobile 6 Classic". Microsoft had described these devices as "a handheld device that enables you to store and retrieve e-mail, contacts, appointments, play multimedia files, games, exchange text messages with MSN Messenger, browse the Web, and more". Although in the broad sense of the term "Smartphone", both Pocket PC phones and Microsoft branded Smartphones each fit into this category.
Microsoft's use of the term "Smartphone" includes only more specific hardware devices that differ from Pocket PC phones. Such Smartphones were originally designed without touchscreens , intended to be operated more efficiently with only one hand, and typically had lower display resolution than Pocket PCs. Microsoft's focus for the Smartphone platform was to create a device that functioned well as a phone and data device in a more integrated manner.
Windows Mobile's share of the smartphone market grew from its inception while new devices were being released. After peaking in , [72] it saw decline year-on-year. In Q4 Microsoft shipped 2. Software could be developed by third parties for the Windows Mobile operating system. Wiet, V.
Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. JSTOR IEEE Micro. Turk J Elec Engin.
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Windows server 2012 standard max ram free.VirtualBox
If you have a dual boot system between Arch Linux and another operating system, it can become tedious to switch back and forth if you need to work in both.
You may also experience performance or compatibility issues when using a virtual machine, which can impact your ability to do certain tasks. This guide will let you reuse, in a virtual machine, your native Arch Linux installation when you are running your second operating system.
This way, you keep the ability to run each operating system natively, but have the option to run your Arch Linux installation inside a virtual machine. Depending on your hard drive setup, device files representing your hard drives may appear differently when you will run your Arch Linux installation natively or in virtual machine.
Windows are abstracting the fake RAID device. To circumvent this problem, we will need to use an addressing scheme that is persistent to both systems. This can be achieved using UUIDs. Make sure your boot loader and fstab file is using UUIDs, otherwise fix this issue. Read fstab and Persistent block device naming. Make sure your mkinitcpio configuration uses the HOOK block :. If it is not present, add it and regenerate the initramfs.
Boot the host which will use the Arch Linux virtual machine. The command will need to be adapted according to the host you have. There are 3 ways to achieve this: login as root, changing the access right of the device with chmod , adding your user to the disk group.
The latter way is the more elegant, let us proceed that way:. Adapt the above command to your need, especially the path and filename of the VMDK location and the raw disk location to map which contain your Arch Linux installation. On Windows, as the disk filename convention is different from UNIX, use this command to determine what drives you have in your Windows system and their location:.
There are other limitations regarding the aforementioned command when used in other operating systems like OS X, please thus read carefully the manual page , if you are concerned.
Then, the newly raw disk needs to be attached to the machine. Indeed, you must specify its hardware configuration as close as possible as your native machine: turning on the 3D acceleration, increasing video memory, setting the network interface, etc.
Finally, you may want to seamlessly integrate your Arch Linux with your host operating system and allow copy pasting between both OSes. In some cases it may be useful to install a native Arch Linux system while running another operating system: one way to accomplish this is to perform the installation through VirtualBox on a raw disk. If the existing operating system is Linux based, you may want to consider following Install from existing Linux instead.
This scenario is very similar to Run a native Arch Linux installation inside VirtualBox , but will follow those steps in a different order: start by Create a raw disk. Before starting the VM, run the following commands on the host machine [3] :. If you are attempting to install Mojave, after doing the aforementioned steps, the installer will load up but you might not be able to send keyboard or mouse input.
The reason seems to be that Mojave no longer supports the USB 1. To do that first install the VirtualBox Extension pack. Input should work from this point onwards. If the installer is unable to properly format the bootable drive during installation and you end up in an UEFI shell, enter the following:. You will now be brought to couple of obscure PCI paths. The first one is the one that you just attempted to boot from and it did not work.
The second or third one should be the one with the MacOS recovery partition that you need to load to continue the installation. Click the second Entry. If it is empty, press Esc to go back and select the third entry. Once you get one with folders click though the folders. Once you click enter on the boot. Note that some of the subdirectories might be missing.
Remember that you need to get to a boot. Your Windows installation must reside on the first MBR partition for this operation to success. Operation for other partitions are available but have been untested see Known limitations for details. The first three following points comes from this outdated VirtualBox wiki page , but are updated here.
Include a reserved system partition if present and the actual Windows partition usually disk C:. The size of Disk2vhd-created image will be the sum of the actual files on the partition used space , not the size of a whole partition.
If all goes well, the image should just boot in a VM and you will not have to go through the hassle with MBR and Windows bootloader, as in the case of cloning an entire partition.
If your Windows virtual machine refuses to boot, you may need to apply the following modifications to your virtual machine. In some cases, it is useful to be able to dual boot with Windows and access the partition in a virtual machine.
This process is significantly different from Move a native Windows installation to a virtual machine in several ways:. A VirtualBox virtual machine must be manually created. As of now do not add any storage device any disk to the virtual machine, it will be done manually later.
Configure the virtual machine with the following settings settings panel can be opened by clicking the "Settings" button in the main toolbar :. To access the Windows partitions, create a raw VMDK file pointing to the relevant Windows partitions root privileges are required to read disk partition table :. The command will also create an extra file inside the virtual machine folder, "windows-pt. VirtualBox must have raw disk access in order to run a Windows partition.
Normally, this would require VirtualBox to be run with full root privileges, but more elegant options are available. Here udev is configured to restrict the access to partitions Windows partitions to the vboxusers group, and then the user running VirtualBox is added to the group. Assigning the disks to the vboxusers group can be done automatically by creating the following file:. The UUIDs in these rules correspond to particular GPT partition types while the other capitalized strings are supposed to be written that way, so those does not have to be replaced.
Then tge user running VirtualBox must be added to the vboxusers group. This can be done with the following command:. To perform unplanned failover the replication direction from one site to another: cut power to both nodes in one site.
In Windows Server , you may need to use Failover Cluster Manager or Move-ClusterGroup to move the destination disks back to the other site manually after the nodes come back online. To change the log size from the default 8GB, right-click both the source and destination log disks, click the Replication Log tab, then change the sizes on both the disks to match. The default log size is 8GB. To add another pair of replicated disks to the existing replication group, you must ensure that there is at least one extra disk in available storage.
You can then right-click the Source disk and select Add replication partnership. This need for an additional 'dummy' disk in available storage is due to a regression and not intentional. Failover Cluster Manager previously support adding more disks normally and will again in a later release.
Accept the warning prompt. You may need to use DiskMgmt. Replicas to determine the current source and destination of replication and their status. To measure replication performance, use the Get-Counter cmdlet on both the source and destination nodes.
The counter names are:. For example, to set all logs to 2GB:. You can then right click the Source disk and select add replication partnership. If using a remote management computer you will need to specify the cluster name to these cmdlets and provide the two RG names.
Skip to main content. This browser is no longer supported. Download Microsoft Edge More info. Table of contents Exit focus mode. Table of contents. Important In this evaluation, servers in different sites must be able to communicate with the other servers via a network, but not have any physical connectivity to the other site's shared storage.
Note You can use only as few as two nodes, where one node each is in each site. Important From this point on, always logon as a domain user who is a member of the built-in administrator group on all servers. Note As of this point, the guide presumes you have two pairings of servers for use in a stretch cluster.
Note Consult your hardware vendor documentation for configuring shared storage and networking hardware. Important Install the Failover Clustering , and Storage Replica roles and features on each of the nodes and restart them. Important You must create two volumes on each enclosure: one for data and one for logs.
The two data volumes must be of identical size. The two log volumes should be of identical size. All replicated data disks must have the same sector sizes.
All log disks must have the same sector sizes. The log volumes should use flash-based storage and high performance resiliency settings. Microsoft recommends that the log storage be as faster than the data storage. Log volumes must never be used for other workloads.
The log volume must be at least 9GB by default and can to be larger or smaller based on log requirements. The File Server role is only necessary for Test-SRTopology to operate, as it opens the necessary firewall ports for testing. Note Skip this section and go to the Configure a file server for general use cluster section, if you want to create a file server cluster and not a Hyper-V cluster.
Note You should expect storage errors from cluster validation, due to the use of asymmetric storage. Important When using a test server with no write IO load on the specified source volume during the evaluation period, consider adding a workload or it Test-SRTopology will not generate a useful report. Note The File Server role must be installed on all nodes prior to continuing to the next step.
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First a hearty breakfast with a view of the islands Nosy Carry out your projects in complete safety June 17, For all your credit or financing needs, we offer our services. Reliable and very secure with a good interest rate. The property is about 12 minutes drive from Bought 15th October at Conforma, guaranteed for 2 years. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example.
A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
This section applies to most common RAM machine —based computers. In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc.
These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions or branches.
Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event.
Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction. Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met.
This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1, would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake.
On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language :. Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second. In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short.
The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on.
The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code.
Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.
The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, [h] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages , programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter.
Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit CPU.
Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error.
High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer.
This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles. Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.
As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge.
Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge. Errors in computer programs are called " bugs ". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to " hang ", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash.
Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the s. The U. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet.
The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web , combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.
In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. A computer does not need to be electronic , nor even have a processor , nor RAM , nor even a hard disk.
While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, [l] the modern definition of a computer is literally: " A device that computes , especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers , DNA computers , neural computers , and quantum computers.
Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function , and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly.
There are many types of computer architectures :. Of all these abstract machines , a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church—Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability being Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.
Therefore, any type of computer netbook , supercomputer , cellular automaton , etc. A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule-based systems and pattern recognition systems.
Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions.
Examples of pattern-based systems include voice recognition , font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing. As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations. For other uses, see Computer disambiguation. Computers and computing devices from different eras. Main articles: History of computing and History of computing hardware. For a chronological guide, see Timeline of computing. Main article: Analog computer. Main article: Stored-program computer. Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor.
Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit. Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor. See also: Classes of computers. Main articles: Computer hardware , Personal computer hardware , Central processing unit , and Microprocessor.
Main article: History of computing hardware. Main articles: CPU design and Control unit. Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor. Main article: Arithmetic logic unit. Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage. Main article: Computer multitasking. Main article: Multiprocessing. Main article: Software. Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming. Main article: Programming language. Main article: Low-level programming language.
Main article: High-level programming language. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
July Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main article: Software bug. Main articles: Computer networking and Internet. Main article: Human computer. See also: Harvard Computers. Glossary of computers Computability theory Computer security Glossary of computer hardware terms History of computer science List of computer term etymologies List of fictional computers List of pioneers in computer science Pulse computation TOP list of most powerful computers Unconventional computing.
The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took years. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in bit forms before their bit incarnations were introduced. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device.
For example, EDVAC , one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.
However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.
An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter.
Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations.
For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices. Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 16 November Retrieved 19 August Numbers through the ages 1st ed. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education.
ISBN OCLC Retrieved 1 July Bibcode : Natur. PMID S2CID Archived from the original on 16 December Retrieved 12 March Wiet, V.
Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. JSTOR IEEE Micro. Turk J Elec Engin. Archived PDF from the original on 15 September Retrieved 21 April
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